Complex Adaptive Learning for Urban Flood Resilience: Community-Based Nature-Based Solutions from Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Agnes Kapinga & Karina Landman

Research article submitted to City and Environment Interactions

Abstract: Flooding continues to be an important challenge in most African cities, with increasing numbers of flood occurrences resulting from rapid urbanisation, poor governance, and increased climate variability. Dar es Salaam, one of the fastest-growing cities in Africa, faces frequent flooding, exposing the limitations of conventional city planning methods. This research aims to examine the role of community-driven Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) in making a city flood-resilient using a Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) approach, drawing on insights from Dar es Salaam as a case study. Data were collected using a participatory stakeholder workshop involving government representatives, non-governmental institutions, and residents in flood-affected neighbourhoods. Interactive platforms were used to identify and reflect on existing local NbS practices, drawing on important CAS elements such as diversity, feedback, and adaptive learning. Findings show a deep prevalence of Green and Hybrid NbS practices in this city, incorporating nature restoration and simple technology implementation. Community participation showed a high level of intergenerationality with youth driving experimentation, adults supporting implementation, and elders sustaining ecological knowledge. On the other hand, poor coordination, limited budgets, and weak private-sector participation have constrained the city's flood resilience. The study recommends strengthening adaptive learning by integrating community initiatives into municipal planning, improving institutional coordination, and enhancing collaboration between public and private actors.

Keywords: Nature-based solutions, flooding, adaptive learning, community resilience, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania